Determined: Life Without
Free Will by Robert Sapolsky review – the hard science of decisions
The
behavioural scientist engagingly lays out the reasons why our every action is
predetermined – and why we shouldn’t despair about it
The
philosophical debate on free will has a way of blowing people’s minds when they
first encounter it. And fair enough: thinkers who deny the existence of free
will insist that nobody ever meaningfully chooses what they do. Earlier this
week, for example, walking past a cafe, I stopped to buy a coffee, and
certainly it felt as if I could have chosen otherwise. Nobody forced
me inside at gunpoint, and I’m not enslaved to an overpowering caffeine
addiction. I just wanted coffee. But hold on: that desire, and the bodily
movements involved in the purchase, were caused by events in my brain. And what
caused them? Prior brain events, interacting with my environment. My brain
itself, for that matter, is only the way it is because of my genes and
upbringing, both of which resulted from the chance meeting of my parents – and
so on, in an unbroken chain of causes, back to the big bang.
If our actions are “determined” in this way, the
moral implications are dizzying. It becomes hard to see how to blame a Harold
Shipman or Charles Manson – or a Vladimir Putin or Donald Trump – for anything
they do. If I’d been born with Shipman’s exact genes, and experienced his
precise upbringing, I’d simply have been him; there’s no secret corner of my
psyche where a ghostly “free will” lurks, capable of making better decisions.
(I’m ignoring randomness in quantum physics here, in the interests of my
sanity; you’ll have to take my word for it that few free-will theorists think
it makes much difference.)
Everything
is luck, including whether or not you have the right character traits for
dealing with bad luck
Perhaps because denying free will feels so
counterintuitive – while talk of inner ghosts is plainly unscientific – a
majority of philosophers are “compatibilists”. They believe our actions are in
fact determined, but that we nonetheless have free will. In a free-will sceptic
such as me, this is apt to prompt murmurings about having one’s cake and eating
it. But the compatibilists do have a point: if you want a coffee, and nothing
stops you from getting one – you can afford it, the cafe’s open, etc – then in
what sense is your purchase not freely made? Because you didn’t choose to want
coffee in the first place? But to meet that definition of freedom, you’d have
to be free not to want what in fact you do want.
Which is a very strange notion indeed.
Into this bewildering terrain steps the celebrated
behavioural scientist Robert Sapolsky, who sets out in Determined to
banish free will once and for all – and to show that confronting its nonexistence
needn’t condemn us to amorality or despair. It’s only one aspect of the book’s
strangeness that he does this in a style that often calls to mind a hugely
knowledgable yet stoned west coast slacker. (I’m still recovering from his
reaction, in a book crammed with footnotes and diagrams of motor neurons, to
the conclusion that we don’t control our lives: “Fuck. That really blows.”)
Robert Sapolsky: ‘deeply informed
company’. Photograph: Thompson-McLellan Photography
His strategy is an ambitious one: to track every
link of the causal chain that culminates in human behaviour, starting with
what’s happening in the brain in the final few milliseconds before we act, all
the way back to how our brains are shaped by early experiences, and even before
that, all mostly at the fine-grained level of neurotransmitters and genes.
Along the way, he makes impassioned arguments
against such ideas as “grit”, which seem to suggest that those raised in
situations that tax their willpower could just choose to develop more of it.
Yes, there are people who “overcame bad luck with spectacular tenacity and
grit” – but their capacity for tenacity and grit was bestowed by luck, too.
Everything is luck, including whether or not you have the right character
traits for dealing with bad luck. In the words of the free-will sceptic Galen
Strawson, “luck swallows everything”.
Determined is
a bravura performance, well worth reading for the pleasure of Sapolsky’s deeply
informed company. What’s less clear is whether this inventory of the causes of
human behaviour should change anyone’s position on free will. After all, most
free-will deniers make their case on a
priori grounds, meaning that their arguments
aren’t dependent on specific scientific findings. If the entire present state
of the world was caused by the entire state of the world just before that, and
the world back then was caused by the state of the world before that,
and so on, then the details of exactly what’s causing what don’t seem to
matter.
Meanwhile, compatibilists, by definition, have
already made their peace with the idea that everything is fully caused, and
insist it’s no threat to free will. So Sapolsky’s insistence that everything
is really, really fully caused seems unlikely to trouble them.
Perhaps there are people who believe free will hides out in some part of the
brain not yet charted by scientists. If so, this book will set them right. But
in philosophy, at least, that isn’t a common view.
Maybe it is a subliminal awareness of these issues
that explains Sapolsky’s tic of informing the reader how much he disliked
writing large chunks of the book. “Giving this section this ridiculous heading
reflects how unenthused I am about having to write this next stretch,” he
writes at one point. About 170 pages later: “I really do not want to
write this chapter, or the next one.” To which another kind of free-will denier
may reply, well, maybe you needn’t have done. Once you’ve made the basic case
that there’s no space for free will, you’ve said it all.
Later in the book, when he turns to the question of
how we should live in the absence of free will, Sapolsky’s humane worldview comes
to the fore. Some argue that realising we lack freedom may turn us into moral
monsters. But he makes a moving case that, really, it’s a reason to live with
profound forgiveness and understanding – for seeing “the absurdity of hating
any person for anything they’ve done”. It is the ultimate philosophical
grounding for the idea that “there but for the grace of God go I”. A familiar
paradox lurks here, as with any discussion of how we ought to respond to the
absence of free will: if there’s no free will, surely we’re just going to
respond however we respond? But this doesn’t mean Sapolsky’s absorbing and
compassionate book won’t change how people think, or how they behave towards
one another. It just means they won’t have freely chosen to make that change.
Determined:
Life Without Free Will by Robert
Sapolsky is published by Bodley Head (£25).
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